internal/atlas: introduce a managed byte slice pool

A managed byte slice from the new byte slice pool has a function
to release and put it back to the pool explicitly, and this doesn't
rely on GCs.

Updates #1681
Closes #2804

internal/atlas/image.go

@@ -482,39 +482,38 @@ func (i *Image) writePixels(pix []byte, region image.Rectangle) {
 		}
 
 		// Copy pixels in the case when pix is modified before the graphics command is executed.
-		// TODO: Create byte slices from a pool.
-		pix2 := make([]byte, len(pix))
-		copy(pix2, pix)
+		pix2 := graphics.NewManagedBytes(len(pix), func(bs []byte) {
+			copy(bs, pix)
+		})
 		i.backend.restorable.WritePixels(pix2, region)
 		return
 	}
 
-	// TODO: Create byte slices from a pool.
-	pixb := make([]byte, 4*r.Dx()*r.Dy())
-
-	// Clear the edges. pixb might not be zero-cleared.
 	// TODO: These loops assume that paddingSize is 1.
 	// TODO: Is clearing edges explicitly really needed?
 	const paddingSize = 1
 	if paddingSize != i.paddingSize() {
 		panic(fmt.Sprintf("atlas: writePixels assumes the padding is always 1 but the actual padding was %d", i.paddingSize()))
 	}
+
+	pixb := graphics.NewManagedBytes(4*r.Dx()*r.Dy(), func(bs []byte) {
+		// Clear the edges. bs might not be zero-cleared.
 		rowPixels := 4 * r.Dx()
 		for i := 0; i < rowPixels; i++ {
-		pixb[rowPixels*(r.Dy()-1)+i] = 0
+			bs[rowPixels*(r.Dy()-1)+i] = 0
 		}
 		for j := 1; j < r.Dy(); j++ {
-		pixb[rowPixels*j-4] = 0
-		pixb[rowPixels*j-3] = 0
-		pixb[rowPixels*j-2] = 0
-		pixb[rowPixels*j-1] = 0
+			bs[rowPixels*j-4] = 0
+			bs[rowPixels*j-3] = 0
+			bs[rowPixels*j-2] = 0
+			bs[rowPixels*j-1] = 0
 		}
 
 		// Copy the content.
 		for j := 0; j < region.Dy(); j++ {
-		copy(pixb[4*j*r.Dx():], pix[4*j*region.Dx():4*(j+1)*region.Dx()])
+			copy(bs[4*j*r.Dx():], pix[4*j*region.Dx():4*(j+1)*region.Dx()])
 		}
-
+	})
 	i.backend.restorable.WritePixels(pixb, r)
 }
 

internal/graphics/bytes.go

@@ -0,0 +1,134 @@
+// Copyright 2023 The Ebitengine Authors
+//
+// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+// You may obtain a copy of the License at
+//
+//     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+//
+// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+// limitations under the License.
+
+package graphics
+
+import (
+	"runtime"
+	"sync"
+)
+
+// ManagedBytes is a managed byte slice.
+// The internal byte alice are managed in a pool.
+// ManagedBytes is useful when its lifetime is explicit, as the underlying byte slice can be reused for another ManagedBytes later.
+// This can redduce allocations and GCs.
+type ManagedBytes struct {
+	bytes []byte
+	pool  *bytesPool
+}
+
+// Len returns the length of the slice.
+func (m *ManagedBytes) Len() int {
+	return len(m.bytes)
+}
+
+// Read reads the byte slice's content to dst.
+func (m *ManagedBytes) Read(dst []byte, from, to int) {
+	copy(dst, m.bytes[from:to])
+}
+
+// Clone creates a new ManagedBytes with the same content.
+func (m *ManagedBytes) Clone() *ManagedBytes {
+	return NewManagedBytes(len(m.bytes), func(bs []byte) {
+		copy(bs, m.bytes)
+	})
+}
+
+// GetAndRelease returns the raw byte slice and a finalizer.
+// A finalizer should be called when you can ensure that the slice is no longer used,
+// e.g. when a graphics command using this slice is sent and executed.
+//
+// After GetAndRelease is called, the underlying byte slice is no longer available.
+func (m *ManagedBytes) GetAndRelease() ([]byte, func()) {
+	bs := m.bytes
+	m.bytes = nil
+	return bs, func() {
+		m.pool.put(bs)
+		runtime.SetFinalizer(m, nil)
+	}
+}
+
+// NewManagedBytes returns a managed byte slice initialized by the given constructor f.
+//
+// The byte slice is not zero-cleared at the constructor.
+func NewManagedBytes(size int, f func([]byte)) *ManagedBytes {
+	bs := theBytesPool.get(size)
+	f(bs.bytes)
+	return bs
+}
+
+type bytesPool struct {
+	pool [][]byte
+
+	m sync.Mutex
+}
+
+var theBytesPool bytesPool
+
+func (b *bytesPool) get(size int) *ManagedBytes {
+	bs := b.getFromCache(size)
+	if bs == nil {
+		bs = make([]byte, size)
+	}
+	m := &ManagedBytes{
+		bytes: bs,
+		pool:  b,
+	}
+	runtime.SetFinalizer(m, func(m *ManagedBytes) {
+		b.put(m.bytes)
+	})
+	return m
+}
+
+func (b *bytesPool) getFromCache(size int) []byte {
+	b.m.Lock()
+	defer b.m.Unlock()
+
+	for i, bs := range b.pool {
+		if cap(bs) < size {
+			continue
+		}
+
+		copy(b.pool[i:], b.pool[i+1:])
+		b.pool[len(b.pool)-1] = nil
+		b.pool = b.pool[:len(b.pool)-1]
+		return bs[:size]
+	}
+
+	return nil
+}
+
+func (b *bytesPool) put(bs []byte) {
+	if len(bs) == 0 {
+		return
+	}
+
+	b.m.Lock()
+	defer b.m.Unlock()
+
+	b.pool = append(b.pool, bs)
+
+	// GC the pool. The size limitation is arbitrary.
+	for len(b.pool) >= 32 || b.totalSize() >= 1024*1024*1024 {
+		b.pool = b.pool[1:]
+	}
+}
+
+func (b *bytesPool) totalSize() int {
+	var s int
+	for _, bs := range b.pool {
+		s += len(bs)
+	}
+	return s
+}

internal/graphicscommand/command.go

@@ -16,6 +16,7 @@ package graphicscommand
 
 import (
 	"fmt"
+	"image"
 	"math"
 	"strings"
 
@@ -33,7 +34,7 @@ import (
 type command interface {
 	fmt.Stringer
 
-	Exec(graphicsDriver graphicsdriver.Graphics, indexOffset int) error
+	Exec(commandQueue *commandQueue, graphicsDriver graphicsdriver.Graphics, indexOffset int) error
 	NeedsSync() bool
 }
 
@@ -101,7 +102,7 @@ func (c *drawTrianglesCommand) String() string {
 }
 
 // Exec executes the drawTrianglesCommand.
-func (c *drawTrianglesCommand) Exec(graphicsDriver graphicsdriver.Graphics, indexOffset int) error {
+func (c *drawTrianglesCommand) Exec(commandQueue *commandQueue, graphicsDriver graphicsdriver.Graphics, indexOffset int) error {
 	// TODO: Is it ok not to bind any framebuffer here?
 	if len(c.dstRegions) == 0 {
 		return nil
@@ -211,7 +212,12 @@ func mightOverlapDstRegions(vertices1, vertices2 []float32) bool {
 // writePixelsCommand represents a command to replace pixels of an image.
 type writePixelsCommand struct {
 	dst  *Image
-	args []graphicsdriver.PixelsArgs
+	args []writePixelsCommandArgs
+}
+
+type writePixelsCommandArgs struct {
+	pixels *graphics.ManagedBytes
+	region image.Rectangle
 }
 
 func (c *writePixelsCommand) String() string {
@@ -219,11 +225,24 @@ func (c *writePixelsCommand) String() string {
 }
 
 // Exec executes the writePixelsCommand.
-func (c *writePixelsCommand) Exec(graphicsDriver graphicsdriver.Graphics, indexOffset int) error {
+func (c *writePixelsCommand) Exec(commandQueue *commandQueue, graphicsDriver graphicsdriver.Graphics, indexOffset int) error {
 	if len(c.args) == 0 {
 		return nil
 	}
-	if err := c.dst.image.WritePixels(c.args); err != nil {
+	args := make([]graphicsdriver.PixelsArgs, 0, len(c.args))
+	for _, a := range c.args {
+		pix, f := a.pixels.GetAndRelease()
+		// A finalizer is executed when flushing the queue at the end of the frame.
+		// At the end of the frame, the last command is rendering triangles onto the screen,
+		// so the bytes are already sent to GPU and synced.
+		// TODO: This might be fragile. When is the better time to call finalizers by a command queue?
+		commandQueue.addFinalizer(f)
+		args = append(args, graphicsdriver.PixelsArgs{
+			Pixels: pix,
+			Region: a.region,
+		})
+	}
+	if err := c.dst.image.WritePixels(args); err != nil {
 		return err
 	}
 	return nil
@@ -239,7 +258,7 @@ type readPixelsCommand struct {
 }
 
 // Exec executes a readPixelsCommand.
-func (c *readPixelsCommand) Exec(graphicsDriver graphicsdriver.Graphics, indexOffset int) error {
+func (c *readPixelsCommand) Exec(commandQueue *commandQueue, graphicsDriver graphicsdriver.Graphics, indexOffset int) error {
 	if err := c.img.image.ReadPixels(c.args); err != nil {
 		return err
 	}
@@ -264,7 +283,7 @@ func (c *disposeImageCommand) String() string {
 }
 
 // Exec executes the disposeImageCommand.
-func (c *disposeImageCommand) Exec(graphicsDriver graphicsdriver.Graphics, indexOffset int) error {
+func (c *disposeImageCommand) Exec(commandQueue *commandQueue, graphicsDriver graphicsdriver.Graphics, indexOffset int) error {
 	c.target.image.Dispose()
 	return nil
 }
@@ -283,7 +302,7 @@ func (c *disposeShaderCommand) String() string {
 }
 
 // Exec executes the disposeShaderCommand.
-func (c *disposeShaderCommand) Exec(graphicsDriver graphicsdriver.Graphics, indexOffset int) error {
+func (c *disposeShaderCommand) Exec(commandQueue *commandQueue, graphicsDriver graphicsdriver.Graphics, indexOffset int) error {
 	c.target.shader.Dispose()
 	return nil
 }
@@ -305,7 +324,7 @@ func (c *newImageCommand) String() string {
 }
 
 // Exec executes a newImageCommand.
-func (c *newImageCommand) Exec(graphicsDriver graphicsdriver.Graphics, indexOffset int) error {
+func (c *newImageCommand) Exec(commandQueue *commandQueue, graphicsDriver graphicsdriver.Graphics, indexOffset int) error {
 	var err error
 	if c.screen {
 		c.result.image, err = graphicsDriver.NewScreenFramebufferImage(c.width, c.height)
@@ -330,7 +349,7 @@ func (c *newShaderCommand) String() string {
 }
 
 // Exec executes a newShaderCommand.
-func (c *newShaderCommand) Exec(graphicsDriver graphicsdriver.Graphics, indexOffset int) error {
+func (c *newShaderCommand) Exec(commandQueue *commandQueue, graphicsDriver graphicsdriver.Graphics, indexOffset int) error {
 	s, err := graphicsDriver.NewShader(c.ir)
 	if err != nil {
 		return err
@@ -352,7 +371,7 @@ func (c *isInvalidatedCommand) String() string {
 	return fmt.Sprintf("is-invalidated: image: %d", c.image.id)
 }
 
-func (c *isInvalidatedCommand) Exec(graphicsDriver graphicsdriver.Graphics, indexOffset int) error {
+func (c *isInvalidatedCommand) Exec(commandQueue *commandQueue, graphicsDriver graphicsdriver.Graphics, indexOffset int) error {
 	c.result = c.image.image.IsInvalidated()
 	return nil
 }

internal/graphicscommand/commandqueue.go

@@ -50,10 +50,17 @@ type commandQueue struct {
 	drawTrianglesCommandPool drawTrianglesCommandPool
 
 	uint32sBuffer uint32sBuffer
+	finalizers    []func()
 
 	err atomic.Value
 }
 
+// addFinalizer adds a finalizer function to this queue.
+// A finalizer is executed when the command queue is flushed at the end of the frame.
+func (q *commandQueue) addFinalizer(f func()) {
+	q.finalizers = append(q.finalizers, f)
+}
+
 func (q *commandQueue) appendIndices(indices []uint16, offset uint16) {
 	n := len(q.indices)
 	q.indices = append(q.indices, indices...)
@@ -220,6 +227,11 @@ func (q *commandQueue) flush(graphicsDriver graphicsdriver.Graphics, endFrame bo
 
 		if endFrame {
 			q.uint32sBuffer.reset()
+			for i, f := range q.finalizers {
+				f()
+				q.finalizers[i] = nil
+			}
+			q.finalizers = q.finalizers[:0]
 		}
 	}()
 
@@ -247,7 +259,7 @@ func (q *commandQueue) flush(graphicsDriver graphicsdriver.Graphics, endFrame bo
 		}
 		indexOffset := 0
 		for _, c := range cs[:nc] {
-			if err := c.Exec(graphicsDriver, indexOffset); err != nil {
+			if err := c.Exec(q, graphicsDriver, indexOffset); err != nil {
 				return err
 			}
 			logger.Logf("  %s\n", c)

internal/graphicscommand/image.go

@@ -43,7 +43,7 @@ type Image struct {
 	// have its graphicsdriver.Image.
 	id int
 
-	bufferedWritePixelsArgs []graphicsdriver.PixelsArgs
+	bufferedWritePixelsArgs []writePixelsCommandArgs
 }
 
 var nextID = 1
@@ -78,6 +78,7 @@ func (i *Image) flushBufferedWritePixels() {
 	if len(i.bufferedWritePixelsArgs) == 0 {
 		return
 	}
+
 	c := &writePixelsCommand{
 		dst:  i,
 		args: i.bufferedWritePixelsArgs,
@@ -159,10 +160,10 @@ func (i *Image) ReadPixels(graphicsDriver graphicsdriver.Graphics, args []graphi
 	return nil
 }
 
-func (i *Image) WritePixels(pixels []byte, region image.Rectangle) {
-	i.bufferedWritePixelsArgs = append(i.bufferedWritePixelsArgs, graphicsdriver.PixelsArgs{
-		Pixels: pixels,
-		Region: region,
+func (i *Image) WritePixels(pixels *graphics.ManagedBytes, region image.Rectangle) {
+	i.bufferedWritePixelsArgs = append(i.bufferedWritePixelsArgs, writePixelsCommandArgs{
+		pixels: pixels,
+		region: region,
 	})
 }
 

internal/graphicscommand/image_test.go

@@ -92,7 +92,12 @@ func TestWritePixelsPartAfterDrawTriangles(t *testing.T) {
 	dr := image.Rect(0, 0, w, h)
 	dst.DrawTriangles([graphics.ShaderImageCount]*graphicscommand.Image{clr}, vs, is, graphicsdriver.BlendClear, dr, [graphics.ShaderImageCount]image.Rectangle{}, nearestFilterShader, nil, false)
 	dst.DrawTriangles([graphics.ShaderImageCount]*graphicscommand.Image{src}, vs, is, graphicsdriver.BlendSourceOver, dr, [graphics.ShaderImageCount]image.Rectangle{}, nearestFilterShader, nil, false)
-	dst.WritePixels(make([]byte, 4), image.Rect(0, 0, 1, 1))
+	bs := graphics.NewManagedBytes(4, func(bs []byte) {
+		for i := range bs {
+			bs[i] = 0
+		}
+	})
+	dst.WritePixels(bs, image.Rect(0, 0, 1, 1))
 
 	// TODO: Check the result.
 }

internal/restorable/image.go

@@ -37,7 +37,7 @@ func (p *Pixels) Apply(img *graphicscommand.Image) {
 	p.pixelsRecords.apply(img)
 }
 
-func (p *Pixels) AddOrReplace(pix []byte, region image.Rectangle) {
+func (p *Pixels) AddOrReplace(pix *graphics.ManagedBytes, region image.Rectangle) {
 	if p.pixelsRecords == nil {
 		p.pixelsRecords = &pixelsRecords{}
 	}
@@ -70,6 +70,13 @@ func (p *Pixels) AppendRegion(regions []image.Rectangle) []image.Rectangle {
 	return p.pixelsRecords.appendRegions(regions)
 }
 
+func (p *Pixels) Dispose() {
+	if p.pixelsRecords == nil {
+		return
+	}
+	p.pixelsRecords.dispose()
+}
+
 // drawTrianglesHistoryItem is an item for history of draw-image commands.
 type drawTrianglesHistoryItem struct {
 	images     [graphics.ShaderImageCount]*Image
@@ -251,7 +258,7 @@ func (i *Image) needsRestoring() bool {
 // WritePixels replaces the image pixels with the given pixels slice.
 //
 // The specified region must not be overlapped with other regions by WritePixels.
-func (i *Image) WritePixels(pixels []byte, region image.Rectangle) {
+func (i *Image) WritePixels(pixels *graphics.ManagedBytes, region image.Rectangle) {
 	if region.Dx() <= 0 || region.Dy() <= 0 {
 		panic("restorable: width/height must be positive")
 	}
@@ -278,7 +285,8 @@ func (i *Image) WritePixels(pixels []byte, region image.Rectangle) {
 
 	if region.Eq(image.Rect(0, 0, w, h)) {
 		if pixels != nil {
-			i.basePixels.AddOrReplace(pixels, image.Rect(0, 0, w, h))
+			// Clone a ManagedBytes as the package graphicscommand has a different lifetime management.
+			i.basePixels.AddOrReplace(pixels.Clone(), image.Rect(0, 0, w, h))
 		} else {
 			i.basePixels.Clear(image.Rect(0, 0, w, h))
 		}
@@ -295,7 +303,8 @@ func (i *Image) WritePixels(pixels []byte, region image.Rectangle) {
 	}
 
 	if pixels != nil {
-		i.basePixels.AddOrReplace(pixels, region)
+		// Clone a ManagedBytes as the package graphicscommand has a different lifetime management.
+		i.basePixels.AddOrReplace(pixels.Clone(), region)
 	} else {
 		i.basePixels.Clear(region)
 	}
@@ -483,7 +492,10 @@ func (i *Image) readPixelsFromGPU(graphicsDriver graphicsdriver.Graphics) error
 	}
 
 	for _, a := range args {
-		i.basePixels.AddOrReplace(a.Pixels, a.Region)
+		bs := graphics.NewManagedBytes(len(a.Pixels), func(bs []byte) {
+			copy(bs, a.Pixels)
+		})
+		i.basePixels.AddOrReplace(bs, a.Region)
 	}
 
 	i.clearDrawTrianglesHistory()
@@ -563,6 +575,7 @@ func (i *Image) restore(graphicsDriver graphicsdriver.Graphics) error {
 		// The screen image should also be recreated because framebuffer might
 		// be changed.
 		i.image = graphicscommand.NewImage(w, h, true)
+		i.basePixels.Dispose()
 		i.basePixels = Pixels{}
 		i.clearDrawTrianglesHistory()
 		i.stale = false
@@ -633,7 +646,10 @@ func (i *Image) restore(graphicsDriver graphicsdriver.Graphics) error {
 		}
 
 		for _, a := range args {
-			i.basePixels.AddOrReplace(a.Pixels, a.Region)
+			bs := graphics.NewManagedBytes(len(a.Pixels), func(bs []byte) {
+				copy(bs, a.Pixels)
+			})
+			i.basePixels.AddOrReplace(bs, a.Region)
 		}
 	}
 
@@ -651,6 +667,7 @@ func (i *Image) Dispose() {
 	theImages.remove(i)
 	i.image.Dispose()
 	i.image = nil
+	i.basePixels.Dispose()
 	i.basePixels = Pixels{}
 	i.pixelsCache = nil
 	i.clearDrawTrianglesHistory()

internal/restorable/images_test.go

@@ -37,6 +37,15 @@ func pixelsToColor(p *restorable.Pixels, i, j, imageWidth, imageHeight int) colo
 	return color.RGBA{R: pix[0], G: pix[1], B: pix[2], A: pix[3]}
 }
 
+func bytesToManagedBytes(src []byte) *graphics.ManagedBytes {
+	if len(src) == 0 {
+		panic("restorable: len(src) must be > 0")
+	}
+	return graphics.NewManagedBytes(len(src), func(dst []byte) {
+		copy(dst, src)
+	})
+}
+
 func abs(x int) int {
 	if x < 0 {
 		return -x
@@ -61,7 +70,7 @@ func TestRestore(t *testing.T) {
 	defer img0.Dispose()
 
 	clr0 := color.RGBA{A: 0xff}
-	img0.WritePixels([]byte{clr0.R, clr0.G, clr0.B, clr0.A}, image.Rect(0, 0, 1, 1))
+	img0.WritePixels(bytesToManagedBytes([]byte{clr0.R, clr0.G, clr0.B, clr0.A}), image.Rect(0, 0, 1, 1))
 	if err := restorable.ResolveStaleImages(ui.GraphicsDriverForTesting()); err != nil {
 		t.Fatal(err)
 	}
@@ -129,7 +138,7 @@ func TestRestoreChain(t *testing.T) {
 		}
 	}()
 	clr := color.RGBA{A: 0xff}
-	imgs[0].WritePixels([]byte{clr.R, clr.G, clr.B, clr.A}, image.Rect(0, 0, 1, 1))
+	imgs[0].WritePixels(bytesToManagedBytes([]byte{clr.R, clr.G, clr.B, clr.A}), image.Rect(0, 0, 1, 1))
 	for i := 0; i < num-1; i++ {
 		vs := quadVertices(1, 1, 0, 0)
 		is := graphics.QuadIndices()
@@ -169,11 +178,11 @@ func TestRestoreChain2(t *testing.T) {
 	}()
 
 	clr0 := color.RGBA{R: 0xff, A: 0xff}
-	imgs[0].WritePixels([]byte{clr0.R, clr0.G, clr0.B, clr0.A}, image.Rect(0, 0, w, h))
+	imgs[0].WritePixels(bytesToManagedBytes([]byte{clr0.R, clr0.G, clr0.B, clr0.A}), image.Rect(0, 0, w, h))
 	clr7 := color.RGBA{G: 0xff, A: 0xff}
-	imgs[7].WritePixels([]byte{clr7.R, clr7.G, clr7.B, clr7.A}, image.Rect(0, 0, w, h))
+	imgs[7].WritePixels(bytesToManagedBytes([]byte{clr7.R, clr7.G, clr7.B, clr7.A}), image.Rect(0, 0, w, h))
 	clr8 := color.RGBA{B: 0xff, A: 0xff}
-	imgs[8].WritePixels([]byte{clr8.R, clr8.G, clr8.B, clr8.A}, image.Rect(0, 0, w, h))
+	imgs[8].WritePixels(bytesToManagedBytes([]byte{clr8.R, clr8.G, clr8.B, clr8.A}), image.Rect(0, 0, w, h))
 
 	is := graphics.QuadIndices()
 	dr := image.Rect(0, 0, w, h)
@@ -218,12 +227,12 @@ func TestRestoreOverrideSource(t *testing.T) {
 	}()
 	clr0 := color.RGBA{A: 0xff}
 	clr1 := color.RGBA{B: 0x01, A: 0xff}
-	img1.WritePixels([]byte{clr0.R, clr0.G, clr0.B, clr0.A}, image.Rect(0, 0, w, h))
+	img1.WritePixels(bytesToManagedBytes([]byte{clr0.R, clr0.G, clr0.B, clr0.A}), image.Rect(0, 0, w, h))
 	is := graphics.QuadIndices()
 	dr := image.Rect(0, 0, w, h)
 	img2.DrawTriangles([graphics.ShaderImageCount]*restorable.Image{img1}, quadVertices(w, h, 0, 0), is, graphicsdriver.BlendSourceOver, dr, [graphics.ShaderImageCount]image.Rectangle{}, restorable.NearestFilterShader, nil, false)
 	img3.DrawTriangles([graphics.ShaderImageCount]*restorable.Image{img2}, quadVertices(w, h, 0, 0), is, graphicsdriver.BlendSourceOver, dr, [graphics.ShaderImageCount]image.Rectangle{}, restorable.NearestFilterShader, nil, false)
-	img0.WritePixels([]byte{clr1.R, clr1.G, clr1.B, clr1.A}, image.Rect(0, 0, w, h))
+	img0.WritePixels(bytesToManagedBytes([]byte{clr1.R, clr1.G, clr1.B, clr1.A}), image.Rect(0, 0, w, h))
 	img1.DrawTriangles([graphics.ShaderImageCount]*restorable.Image{img0}, quadVertices(w, h, 0, 0), is, graphicsdriver.BlendSourceOver, dr, [graphics.ShaderImageCount]image.Rectangle{}, restorable.NearestFilterShader, nil, false)
 	if err := restorable.ResolveStaleImages(ui.GraphicsDriverForTesting()); err != nil {
 		t.Fatal(err)
@@ -390,7 +399,7 @@ func TestRestoreComplexGraph(t *testing.T) {
 func newImageFromImage(rgba *image.RGBA) *restorable.Image {
 	s := rgba.Bounds().Size()
 	img := restorable.NewImage(s.X, s.Y, restorable.ImageTypeRegular)
-	img.WritePixels(rgba.Pix, image.Rect(0, 0, s.X, s.Y))
+	img.WritePixels(bytesToManagedBytes(rgba.Pix), image.Rect(0, 0, s.X, s.Y))
 	return img
 }
 
@@ -459,7 +468,7 @@ func TestWritePixels(t *testing.T) {
 	for i := range pix {
 		pix[i] = 0xff
 	}
-	img.WritePixels(pix, image.Rect(5, 7, 9, 11))
+	img.WritePixels(bytesToManagedBytes(pix), image.Rect(5, 7, 9, 11))
 	// Check the region (5, 7)-(9, 11). Outside state is indeterminate.
 	pix = make([]byte, 4*4*4)
 	for i := range pix {
@@ -514,7 +523,7 @@ func TestDrawTrianglesAndWritePixels(t *testing.T) {
 	is := graphics.QuadIndices()
 	dr := image.Rect(0, 0, 2, 1)
 	img1.DrawTriangles([graphics.ShaderImageCount]*restorable.Image{img0}, vs, is, graphicsdriver.BlendCopy, dr, [graphics.ShaderImageCount]image.Rectangle{}, restorable.NearestFilterShader, nil, false)
-	img1.WritePixels([]byte{0xff, 0xff, 0xff, 0xff, 0xff, 0xff, 0xff, 0xff}, image.Rect(0, 0, 2, 1))
+	img1.WritePixels(bytesToManagedBytes([]byte{0xff, 0xff, 0xff, 0xff, 0xff, 0xff, 0xff, 0xff}), image.Rect(0, 0, 2, 1))
 
 	if err := restorable.ResolveStaleImages(ui.GraphicsDriverForTesting()); err != nil {
 		t.Fatal(err)
@@ -580,7 +589,7 @@ func TestWritePixelsPart(t *testing.T) {
 
 	img := restorable.NewImage(4, 4, restorable.ImageTypeRegular)
 	// This doesn't make the image stale. Its base pixels are available.
-	img.WritePixels(pix, image.Rect(1, 1, 3, 3))
+	img.WritePixels(bytesToManagedBytes(pix), image.Rect(1, 1, 3, 3))
 
 	cases := []struct {
 		i    int
@@ -655,14 +664,14 @@ func TestWritePixelsOnly(t *testing.T) {
 	defer img1.Dispose()
 
 	for i := 0; i < w*h; i += 5 {
-		img0.WritePixels([]byte{1, 2, 3, 4}, image.Rect(i%w, i/w, i%w+1, i/w+1))
+		img0.WritePixels(bytesToManagedBytes([]byte{1, 2, 3, 4}), image.Rect(i%w, i/w, i%w+1, i/w+1))
 	}
 
 	vs := quadVertices(1, 1, 0, 0)
 	is := graphics.QuadIndices()
 	dr := image.Rect(0, 0, 1, 1)
 	img1.DrawTriangles([graphics.ShaderImageCount]*restorable.Image{img0}, vs, is, graphicsdriver.BlendCopy, dr, [graphics.ShaderImageCount]image.Rectangle{}, restorable.NearestFilterShader, nil, false)
-	img0.WritePixels([]byte{5, 6, 7, 8}, image.Rect(0, 0, 1, 1))
+	img0.WritePixels(bytesToManagedBytes([]byte{5, 6, 7, 8}), image.Rect(0, 0, 1, 1))
 
 	// BasePixelsForTesting is available without GPU accessing.
 	for j := 0; j < h; j++ {
@@ -704,14 +713,14 @@ func TestReadPixelsFromVolatileImage(t *testing.T) {
 	src := restorable.NewImage(w, h, restorable.ImageTypeRegular)
 
 	// First, make sure that dst has pixels
-	dst.WritePixels(make([]byte, 4*w*h), image.Rect(0, 0, w, h))
+	dst.WritePixels(bytesToManagedBytes(make([]byte, 4*w*h)), image.Rect(0, 0, w, h))
 
 	// Second, draw src to dst. If the implementation is correct, dst becomes stale.
 	pix := make([]byte, 4*w*h)
 	for i := range pix {
 		pix[i] = 0xff
 	}
-	src.WritePixels(pix, image.Rect(0, 0, w, h))
+	src.WritePixels(bytesToManagedBytes(pix), image.Rect(0, 0, w, h))
 	vs := quadVertices(1, 1, 0, 0)
 	is := graphics.QuadIndices()
 	dr := image.Rect(0, 0, w, h)
@@ -740,7 +749,7 @@ func TestAllowWritePixelsAfterDrawTriangles(t *testing.T) {
 	is := graphics.QuadIndices()
 	dr := image.Rect(0, 0, w, h)
 	dst.DrawTriangles([graphics.ShaderImageCount]*restorable.Image{src}, vs, is, graphicsdriver.BlendSourceOver, dr, [graphics.ShaderImageCount]image.Rectangle{}, restorable.NearestFilterShader, nil, false)
-	dst.WritePixels(make([]byte, 4*w*h), image.Rect(0, 0, w, h))
+	dst.WritePixels(bytesToManagedBytes(make([]byte, 4*w*h)), image.Rect(0, 0, w, h))
 	// WritePixels for a whole image doesn't panic.
 }
 
@@ -753,13 +762,13 @@ func TestAllowWritePixelsForPartAfterDrawTriangles(t *testing.T) {
 	for i := range pix {
 		pix[i] = 0xff
 	}
-	src.WritePixels(pix, image.Rect(0, 0, w, h))
+	src.WritePixels(bytesToManagedBytes(pix), image.Rect(0, 0, w, h))
 
 	vs := quadVertices(w, h, 0, 0)
 	is := graphics.QuadIndices()
 	dr := image.Rect(0, 0, w, h)
 	dst.DrawTriangles([graphics.ShaderImageCount]*restorable.Image{src}, vs, is, graphicsdriver.BlendSourceOver, dr, [graphics.ShaderImageCount]image.Rectangle{}, restorable.NearestFilterShader, nil, false)
-	dst.WritePixels(make([]byte, 4*2*2), image.Rect(0, 0, 2, 2))
+	dst.WritePixels(bytesToManagedBytes(make([]byte, 4*2*2)), image.Rect(0, 0, 2, 2))
 	// WritePixels for a part of image doesn't panic.
 
 	if err := restorable.ResolveStaleImages(ui.GraphicsDriverForTesting()); err != nil {
@@ -806,7 +815,7 @@ func TestExtend(t *testing.T) {
 		}
 	}
 
-	orig.WritePixels(pix, image.Rect(0, 0, w, h))
+	orig.WritePixels(bytesToManagedBytes(pix), image.Rect(0, 0, w, h))
 	extended := orig.Extend(w*2, h*2) // After this, orig is already disposed.
 
 	result := make([]byte, 4*(w*2)*(h*2))
@@ -846,7 +855,7 @@ func TestDrawTrianglesAndExtend(t *testing.T) {
 			pix[4*idx+3] = v
 		}
 	}
-	src.WritePixels(pix, image.Rect(0, 0, w, h))
+	src.WritePixels(bytesToManagedBytes(pix), image.Rect(0, 0, w, h))
 
 	orig := restorable.NewImage(w, h, restorable.ImageTypeRegular)
 	vs := quadVertices(w, h, 0, 0)
@@ -876,13 +885,13 @@ func TestDrawTrianglesAndExtend(t *testing.T) {
 func TestClearPixels(t *testing.T) {
 	const w, h = 16, 16
 	img := restorable.NewImage(w, h, restorable.ImageTypeRegular)
-	img.WritePixels(make([]byte, 4*4*4), image.Rect(0, 0, 4, 4))
-	img.WritePixels(make([]byte, 4*4*4), image.Rect(4, 0, 8, 4))
+	img.WritePixels(bytesToManagedBytes(make([]byte, 4*4*4)), image.Rect(0, 0, 4, 4))
+	img.WritePixels(bytesToManagedBytes(make([]byte, 4*4*4)), image.Rect(4, 0, 8, 4))
 	img.ClearPixels(image.Rect(0, 0, 4, 4))
 	img.ClearPixels(image.Rect(4, 0, 8, 4))
 
 	// After clearing, the regions will be available again.
-	img.WritePixels(make([]byte, 4*8*4), image.Rect(0, 0, 8, 4))
+	img.WritePixels(bytesToManagedBytes(make([]byte, 4*8*4)), image.Rect(0, 0, 8, 4))
 }
 
 func TestMutateSlices(t *testing.T) {
@@ -896,7 +905,7 @@ func TestMutateSlices(t *testing.T) {
 		pix[4*i+2] = byte(i)
 		pix[4*i+3] = 0xff
 	}
-	src.WritePixels(pix, image.Rect(0, 0, w, h))
+	src.WritePixels(bytesToManagedBytes(pix), image.Rect(0, 0, w, h))
 
 	vs := quadVertices(w, h, 0, 0)
 	is := make([]uint16, len(graphics.QuadIndices()))
@@ -950,7 +959,7 @@ func TestOverlappedPixels(t *testing.T) {
 			pix0[idx+3] = 0xff
 		}
 	}
-	dst.WritePixels(pix0, image.Rect(0, 0, 2, 2))
+	dst.WritePixels(bytesToManagedBytes(pix0), image.Rect(0, 0, 2, 2))
 
 	pix1 := make([]byte, 4*2*2)
 	for j := 0; j < 2; j++ {
@@ -962,7 +971,7 @@ func TestOverlappedPixels(t *testing.T) {
 			pix1[idx+3] = 0xff
 		}
 	}
-	dst.WritePixels(pix1, image.Rect(1, 1, 3, 3))
+	dst.WritePixels(bytesToManagedBytes(pix1), image.Rect(1, 1, 3, 3))
 
 	wantColors := []color.RGBA{
 		{0xff, 0, 0, 0xff},
@@ -1032,7 +1041,7 @@ func TestOverlappedPixels(t *testing.T) {
 			pix2[idx+3] = 0xff
 		}
 	}
-	dst.WritePixels(pix2, image.Rect(1, 1, 3, 3))
+	dst.WritePixels(bytesToManagedBytes(pix2), image.Rect(1, 1, 3, 3))
 
 	wantColors = []color.RGBA{
 		{0xff, 0, 0, 0xff},
@@ -1089,7 +1098,7 @@ func TestDrawTrianglesAndReadPixels(t *testing.T) {
 	src := restorable.NewImage(w, h, restorable.ImageTypeRegular)
 	dst := restorable.NewImage(w, h, restorable.ImageTypeRegular)
 
-	src.WritePixels([]byte{0x80, 0x80, 0x80, 0x80}, image.Rect(0, 0, 1, 1))
+	src.WritePixels(bytesToManagedBytes([]byte{0x80, 0x80, 0x80, 0x80}), image.Rect(0, 0, 1, 1))
 
 	vs := quadVertices(w, h, 0, 0)
 	is := graphics.QuadIndices()
@@ -1109,10 +1118,10 @@ func TestWritePixelsAndDrawTriangles(t *testing.T) {
 	src := restorable.NewImage(1, 1, restorable.ImageTypeRegular)
 	dst := restorable.NewImage(2, 1, restorable.ImageTypeRegular)
 
-	src.WritePixels([]byte{0x80, 0x80, 0x80, 0x80}, image.Rect(0, 0, 1, 1))
+	src.WritePixels(bytesToManagedBytes([]byte{0x80, 0x80, 0x80, 0x80}), image.Rect(0, 0, 1, 1))
 
 	// Call WritePixels first.
-	dst.WritePixels([]byte{0x40, 0x40, 0x40, 0x40}, image.Rect(0, 0, 1, 1))
+	dst.WritePixels(bytesToManagedBytes([]byte{0x40, 0x40, 0x40, 0x40}), image.Rect(0, 0, 1, 1))
 
 	// Call DrawTriangles at a different region second.
 	vs := quadVertices(1, 1, 1, 0)

internal/restorable/pixelrecords.go

@@ -18,12 +18,13 @@ import (
 	"fmt"
 	"image"
 
+	"github.com/hajimehoshi/ebiten/v2/internal/graphics"
 	"github.com/hajimehoshi/ebiten/v2/internal/graphicscommand"
 )
 
 type pixelsRecord struct {
 	rect image.Rectangle
-	pix  []byte
+	pix  *graphics.ManagedBytes
 }
 
 func (p *pixelsRecord) readPixels(pixels []byte, region image.Rectangle, imageWidth, imageHeight int) {
@@ -41,7 +42,7 @@ func (p *pixelsRecord) readPixels(pixels []byte, region image.Rectangle, imageWi
 		for j := 0; j < r.Dy(); j++ {
 			dstX := 4 * ((dstBaseY+j)*region.Dx() + dstBaseX)
 			srcX := 4 * ((srcBaseY+j)*p.rect.Dx() + srcBaseX)
-			copy(pixels[dstX:dstX+lineWidth], p.pix[srcX:srcX+lineWidth])
+			p.pix.Read(pixels[dstX:dstX+lineWidth], srcX, srcX+lineWidth)
 		}
 	} else {
 		for j := 0; j < r.Dy(); j++ {
@@ -57,9 +58,9 @@ type pixelsRecords struct {
 	records []*pixelsRecord
 }
 
-func (pr *pixelsRecords) addOrReplace(pixels []byte, region image.Rectangle) {
-	if len(pixels) != 4*region.Dx()*region.Dy() {
-		msg := fmt.Sprintf("restorable: len(pixels) must be 4*%d*%d = %d but %d", region.Dx(), region.Dy(), 4*region.Dx()*region.Dy(), len(pixels))
+func (pr *pixelsRecords) addOrReplace(pixels *graphics.ManagedBytes, region image.Rectangle) {
+	if pixels.Len() != 4*region.Dx()*region.Dy() {
+		msg := fmt.Sprintf("restorable: len(pixels) must be 4*%d*%d = %d but %d", region.Dx(), region.Dy(), 4*region.Dx()*region.Dy(), pixels.Len())
 		if pixels == nil {
 			msg += " (nil)"
 		}
@@ -128,7 +129,8 @@ func (pr *pixelsRecords) apply(img *graphicscommand.Image) {
 	// TODO: Isn't this too heavy? Can we merge the operations?
 	for _, r := range pr.records {
 		if r.pix != nil {
-			img.WritePixels(r.pix, r.rect)
+			// Clone a ManagedBytes as the package graphicscommand has a different lifetime management.
+			img.WritePixels(r.pix.Clone(), r.rect)
 		} else {
 			clearImage(img, r.rect)
 		}
@@ -144,3 +146,14 @@ func (pr *pixelsRecords) appendRegions(regions []image.Rectangle) []image.Rectan
 	}
 	return regions
 }
+
+func (pr *pixelsRecords) dispose() {
+	for _, r := range pr.records {
+		if r.pix == nil {
+			continue
+		}
+		// As the package graphicscommands already has cloned ManagedBytes objects, it is OK to release it.
+		_, f := r.pix.GetAndRelease()
+		f()
+	}
+}

internal/restorable/shader_test.go

@@ -80,7 +80,7 @@ func TestShaderChain(t *testing.T) {
 		imgs = append(imgs, img)
 	}
 
-	imgs[0].WritePixels([]byte{0xff, 0, 0, 0xff}, image.Rect(0, 0, 1, 1))
+	imgs[0].WritePixels(bytesToManagedBytes([]byte{0xff, 0, 0, 0xff}), image.Rect(0, 0, 1, 1))
 
 	s := restorable.NewShader(etesting.ShaderProgramImages(1))
 	for i := 0; i < num-1; i++ {
@@ -109,9 +109,9 @@ func TestShaderMultipleSources(t *testing.T) {
 	for i := range srcs {
 		srcs[i] = restorable.NewImage(1, 1, restorable.ImageTypeRegular)
 	}
-	srcs[0].WritePixels([]byte{0x40, 0, 0, 0xff}, image.Rect(0, 0, 1, 1))
-	srcs[1].WritePixels([]byte{0, 0x80, 0, 0xff}, image.Rect(0, 0, 1, 1))
-	srcs[2].WritePixels([]byte{0, 0, 0xc0, 0xff}, image.Rect(0, 0, 1, 1))
+	srcs[0].WritePixels(bytesToManagedBytes([]byte{0x40, 0, 0, 0xff}), image.Rect(0, 0, 1, 1))
+	srcs[1].WritePixels(bytesToManagedBytes([]byte{0, 0x80, 0, 0xff}), image.Rect(0, 0, 1, 1))
+	srcs[2].WritePixels(bytesToManagedBytes([]byte{0, 0, 0xc0, 0xff}), image.Rect(0, 0, 1, 1))
 
 	dst := restorable.NewImage(1, 1, restorable.ImageTypeRegular)
 
@@ -138,11 +138,11 @@ func TestShaderMultipleSources(t *testing.T) {
 
 func TestShaderMultipleSourcesOnOneTexture(t *testing.T) {
 	src := restorable.NewImage(3, 1, restorable.ImageTypeRegular)
-	src.WritePixels([]byte{
+	src.WritePixels(bytesToManagedBytes([]byte{
 		0x40, 0, 0, 0xff,
 		0, 0x80, 0, 0xff,
 		0, 0, 0xc0, 0xff,
-	}, image.Rect(0, 0, 3, 1))
+	}), image.Rect(0, 0, 3, 1))
 	srcs := [graphics.ShaderImageCount]*restorable.Image{src, src, src}
 
 	dst := restorable.NewImage(1, 1, restorable.ImageTypeRegular)